Table 2 Biomaterial influence on macrophage phenotype

Large fibers and pores (PDO)

M2 response, wound healing, angiogenesis [123]

Fiber size

~0.6 μm (PLLA)

Minimal M1 activation, low FBGC population [121]

~1.6 μm (PLLA)

High FBGC population [121]

Hydrogels with pores (30–40 μm) (pHEMA-co-MAA)

M2 dominated, maximum vascularization, minimum fibrotic response [132]

Microgel coating (pNIPAm-co-PEGDA)

Reduction of M1 activation and cytokine secretion [124]

Zwitterionic hydrogels

Anti-inflammatory, pro-healing M2 macrophages, angiogenesis, no fibrous capsule [125]

Subintestinal submucosa

Crosslinked with carbodiimide

M1 bias, chronic inflammation, prolonged healing [24]

Non-crosslinked

M2 bias, constructive remodeling [24]

Acetylated chitosan

5% acetylated

Predominately M2, reduced fibrous capsule [122],[142]

15% acetylated

Presence of M1 macrophages [122],[142]

Glutaraldehyde crosslinked collagen

M1/M2 balance, improved vascularization [143]

Biologically-derived scaffolds

Porcine submucosa, urinary bladder

M2, timely constructive tissue remodeling [23]

Human, porcine dermis

M1, prolonged healing [23]